O’Reilly Verlag

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Symbols[ Top ]
\G escape, 12

A[ Top ]
access control, 204
      (see also privileges)
ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability), 22
ACID transactions, 22-29
      advantages and disadvantages, 23
      deadlocks, 26
      isolation levels, 23-26
      in MySQL, 27
      transaction logging, 27
ALTER TABLE statement, 33
ANALYZE TABLE command, 78, 84
ANSI SQL isolation levels, 26
application-level encryption, 233-234
auditing, 188
authentication, 204
authorization, 204
AUTOCOMMIT mode, 27
automatic host blocking, 230
average employee account privileges, 217

B[ Top ]
backups, 187-202
      custom scripts, writing, 199-202
      data compression and, 192
      filesystem snapshots, 199
      offline backups, 198
      online versus offline, 191
      planning, 189-193
            dumps versus raw backups, 189
      raw backups, 190
      reasons for performing, 187-189
            auditing, 188
            disaster recovery, 188
            testing, 189
      recovery (see recovery)
      replication and, 131, 193
      retention of old backups, 192
      storage demands and media, 192
      table types and consistency, 191
      tools, 193-197
            InnoDB Hot Backup, 197
            mysqldump, 193-195
            mysqlhotcopy, 195
            mysqlsnapshot, 196
balanced tree (B-tree) indexes, 68
BDB storage engine (see Berkeley DB storage engine)
BDB tables (see Berkeley DB storage engine)
BEGIN statement, 22
bench_example script, 58
benchmarking, 45-60
      importance, 46
      performance testing versus stress testing, 46
      questions answered by, 46
      strategies, 46-48
      testing methodology, 47
            client numbers, 48
            client/server separation, 48
            isolating the variable, 47
            iterative testing, 47
            real data, 48
            repetition, 47
      tools, 49-60
            MyBench (see MyBench)
            MySQL Benchmark Suite (see MySQL Benchmark Suite)
            MySQL super-smack (see MySQL super-smack)
            scripting solutions (see MyBench)
            Windows and, 49
Berkeley DB (BDB) storage engine, 44
      indexes, 73
            refreshing statistics, 78
      primary keys and, 67
binary installations, MySQL.com binaries versus distribution binaries, 3
binary logs, 130
      resetting, 139
B-tree indexes, 68
buffers, 105
bulletin boards, use of storage engines for, 32

C[ Top ]
caching, 105
      CPU cache, 107
      load-balancing and, 172
      MySQL 4.0, cache checking limitations, 80
      query cache, 80-81
      server tuning and, 123
      write caching, 112
            RAID and, 112
catalogs, use of storage engines for, 31
CD-ROM applications, use of storage engines for, 33
CHANGE MASTER TO ... command, 151
check_repl script, 154
C-JDBC (Clustered JDBC), 171
clumpy data, 64
cluster partitioning, 179-183
      data-based partitioning, 181
      filtering, 182
      multicluster partitioning, 182
      role-based partitioning, 179
clustered indexes, 65, 66
      potential for degraded performance, 66
CNAME, 131
code example permissions, xiii
columns_priv table, 207, 214
concurrency (see locking and concurrency)
configuration files, 4-11
      client and server section names, 6
      command-line arguments, 4
      comments, 6
      file formats, 6
      file locations, 4
      key/value pairs, 6
      machine size and, 7
      reconfiguration, 10
      revision control, 10
      sample configuration files, 7-10
            my-medium.cnf, 7-10
      server variables, setting, 10
      set-variable statements, 6
connection pooling and load-balancing, 173
CPU speed versus main memory speed, 105
CPUs, solving bottlenecks with, 124
CREATE and SELECT table conversion method, 34
creation id, 21

D[ Top ]
data
      clumpy data, 64
      distribution via replication, 130
database administrator account privileges, 216
database dumps, 189
database version, 21
db table, 207, 212
DBIx::DBCluster module, 171
deadlocks, 26
delayed key writes, 72
DELAY_KEY_WRITE option, MyISAM storage engine, 39
deletion id, 21
dictionaries, 55
dirty reads, 24
disks
      IDE versus SCSI disks, 112
      seek time, 104
      server performance, impact on, 104
      (see also RAID)
DMZs, 225
drop and reimport table conversion method, 34
dual master replication configuration, 146
dumps, 189
      disadvantages, 190
duplex mismatch, 106

E[ Top ]
EMIC Networks high availability technology, 186
ENCRYPT( ), 231
exclusive locks, 18
EXPLAIN command, 82-91
      output, information in, 83
      rows output, 85
ext2 and ext3 filesystems, 115

F[ Top ]
file privilege, 206
filesystems, 113-117
      choosing, 115-117
      doing without, 116
      encryption of, 232
      journaling, 114
firewalls, 225
fix_repl script, 155
FLUSH, 199
FreeBSD
      filesystems, 116
      MySQL distribution, 3
      soft updates, 114
      threading, 118
      UFS and UFS2 filesystems, 116
.frm files, 35
full-text indexes, 74
      versus LIKE queries, 95

G[ Top ]
\G escape, 12
gen-data command, 55
global buffers, 105
global privileges, 206
GLOBAL syntax, 10
GRANT command, 215-219
grant privilege, 206
grant tables, 204, 207
      fields used for matching records in, 208

H[ Top ]
hard drives (see disks)
hardware, buying, 107
hash indexes, 69
health checks, 175-177
Heap tables, 44
      indexes and, 73
      primary keys and, 67
high availability, 182-186
      commercial solutions, 186
            EMIC Networks, 186
            Veritas, 186
      dual-master replication and load-balancing, 183
      and failover through replication, 131
            role-based addressing, 132
      keepalived software, 185
      shared storage with standby, 184
host table, 207, 211
hostname-bin, 136
Hot Backup Tool (ibbackup), 197
hot-swappable RAID disks, 107
HTTP load-balancing, compared to MySQL, 171-174

I[ Top ]
ibbackup (Hot Backup Tool), 197
IDE versus SCSI disks, 112
implicit commits, 27
index privilege, 206
indexes, 61-78
      B-tree indexes, 68
      clustered indexes, 65
            potential for degraded performance, 66
      constraints, used as, 65
      database indexes, 62
      full-text indexes, 74
      hash indexes, 69
      index order, 64
      index structures, 68-72
      index-only queries, 86
      index-organized tables, 66
      keys and, 63
      limitations, 75-76
            corruption, 76
            poor statistics, 76
            regular expressions, 75
            too many matching rows, 76
            wildcard matches, 75
      maintenance, 76-78
            obtaining information, 77
            refreshing statistics, 77
      multicolumn indexes, 63
      NULLs, 67
      partial indexes, 63
      queries against the wrong index, 120-122
      query optimization and, 92
            data, insufficient diversity in, 92
            full-text indexes versus LIKE, 95
            index-based ordering, 93
            index-related hints, 97
      R-tree indexes, 70-72
      secondary indexes, 65
      table types and, 72-76
            Berkeley DB (BDB) storage engine, 73
            Heap tables, 73
            InnoDB storage engine, 74
            MyISAM storage engine, 72
      tradeoffs, costs versus advantages, 63
      unique indexes, 65
            versus primary keys, 67
      usage, verifying (see EXPLAIN command)
in-memory (Heap) tables (see Heap tables)
Innobase, 9
Innobase Oy, 42
InnoDB Hot Backup tool, 197
InnoDB storage engine, 9, 42-44
      buffer pool, 105
      clustered indexes, 66
      indexes
            refreshing statistics, 78
      indexes and, 74
      locking and concurrency, 43
      primary keys and, 67
      referential integrity, 43
      SHOW INNODB STATUS command, 14
      storage, 43
InnoDB tables (see InnoDB storage engine)
innodb_buffer_pool_size, 105
installing MySQL, 2-4
iostat, 124
ISAM (Index Sequential Access Method) table format, 37
isolation levels, 23-26
      ANSI SQL, 26
      setting, 28

J[ Top ]
JFS filesystem, 116
joins, 91
journaling filesystems, 114

K[ Top ]
keepalived, 185
kernel bottlenecks, solving, 127
key_buffer_size, 105
keys
      indexes and, 63
      key parts, 64
      primary keys, 67

L[ Top ]
LIKE queries versus full-text indexes, 95
Linux
      2.4 kernel swapping, 117
      distributions of MySQL included in, 3
      filesystems, 115
      nonjournaling filesystems, 114
Linux Virtual Server project, 131
Linux volume manager (LVM), snapshot capabilities, 199
LOAD DATA INFILE command, 162
      security concerns, 206
LOAD TABLE FROM MASTER command, 139
load-balancing, 123, 169-183
      availability, 170
      caching systems, 172
      configuration, 174-179
            cluster partitioning, 179-183
            connection limits, 177
            health checks, 175-177
            next-connection algorithms, 177-179
      efficiency, 170
      load-balancing products, 131
      multi-master load-balancing, 174
      MySQL and HTTP, compared, 171-174
            connection pooling, 173
            partitioning, 172
            requests, 171
      purpose, 169
      scalability, 170
      software solutions, 171
      transparency, 171
      using replication, 130
load-balancing products, 131
localhost and MySQL, 224
localhost-only connections, security, 223
LOCK TABLES command, 29
locking and concurrency, 18-22
      InnoDB storage engine, 43
      lock granularity, 19
      lock types, 18
      MVCC, 20-22
      MyISAM storage engine, 38
      page locks, 20
      row locks, 20
logging
      log corruption, 161
      log index files, 142
      logfiles, 142
      out of sync binary and transaction logs, 163
      privileges, setting, 217
      storage engines, use for, 31
      transaction logging, 27
logins, 203
LVM (Linux volume manager), snapshot capabilities, 199

M[ Top ]
max_connections, 177
McKusick, Kirk, 114
MD5( ), 231
memory
      bottlenecks, solving, 125
      impact on server performance, 105
Merge tables, 31, 40-42
mirroring, 110
missing temporary tables, problems caused by, 163
multicolumn indexes, 63
multi-master load-balancing, 174
multi-master replication configuration, 146
multiple servers, configuration files for, 5
MVCC (Multi-Version Concurrency Control), 20-22
MyBench, 57-60
      bench_example script, 58
      fork_and_work( ) subroutine, 59
      (see also benchmarking)
.MYD file types, 37
.MYI file types, 37
MyISAM storage engine, 37-42
      automatic repair, 38
      compressed tables, 39
      delayed key writes, 39, 72
      full-text indexes, 74
      indexes
            refreshing statistics, 77
      indexes and, 72
      indexes in, 65
      indexing, 39
      key buffer, 105
      locking and concurrency, 38
      Merge tables, 31, 40-42
      packed keys, 72
      prefix compression, 72
      RAID tables, 39
      read queries and, 20
      REPAIR TABLE command, 73
      row counting speed, 30
      storage, 37
      table size, 37
MyISAM tables (see MyISAM storage engine)
myisamchk command-line tool, 78
my-medium.cnf file, 7-10
mysnap.pl, 200
      output, 202
MySQL
      ANSI standard isolation levels, support for, 28
      architecture, 16
      distributions, compared, 3
      installations, binary versus source, 2-4
      load-balancing compared to HTTP, 171-174
      online documentation, xii
      performance, monitoring, 11-15
      platforms, xii
      support, binary distributions, 3
      versions, xii
MySQL 4.0, cache checking limitations, 80
MySQL Benchmark Suite, 49
      insert test, 50
      logging, 50
      multi-CPU machines and, 50
      testing non-MySQL servers, 49
      (see also benchmarking)
mysql command interpreter, \G escape, 12
MySQL super-smack, 51-57
      configuring, 53-57
      delim option, 56
      dictionaries, 55
      example benchmarks, 52
      gen-data command, 55
      installing, 51
      obtaining, 51
      smack file, 54
      test data, preparing, 53
      (see also benchmarking)
mysqladmin command, using for offline backups, 198
mysqlbinlog utility, 137, 153
mysqldiff script, 157
mysqld_safe command line, 11
mysqldump, 34, 189, 193-195
mysqldumpslow, 96
mysqlhotcopy, 190, 195
mysql_pconnect( ), 173
mysql.server startup script, 11
mysqlsnapshot, 190, 196
mytop, 248-256
      command-line arguments, 253
      common tasks, 255
      configuration, 253
      display modes, 248-251
            command view, 250
            status view, 250
            thread view, 249-252
      installation, 253
      long-running queries, management using, 255
      query statistics, collection with, 255
      required Perl modules, 252
      supported operating systems, 251
      web site, 248

N[ Top ]
Native POSIX Thread Library (NPTL), 118
NDB storage engine and cluster, 183
Network Appliance filers, 199
Network Attached Storage (NAS) and MySQL, 106
network load-balancing products, 131
Network Operation Center's (NOC) user account, 218
networks
      capacity utilization, 106
      impact on server performance, 106-109
      network ports, 108
      security and SSH tunneling, 229
next-connection algorithms, 177-179
next-key locking, 25
non-repeatable reads, 25
nonreplicated dependencies, problems caused by, 162
nonunique server IDs, problems caused by, 161
NPTL (Native POSIX Thread Library), 118
NULLs, 67
      primary keys and, 68

O[ Top ]
O(n) problem, 62
Open Source SQL Relay package, 171
OpenGIS specifications, 70
operating systems, 113-118
      filesystems, 113-117
      security, 222
      swap, 117
      threading, 118
operations and monitoring personnel, privileges, 218
optimization, 1
      (see also query optimizer)
OPTIMIZE TABLE command, 77
order processing, use of storage engines for, 31

P[ Top ]
Pachev, Sasha, 51
packed keys, 72
page locks, 20
parity blocks, 110
partial indexes, 63
partial log records, problems caused by, 161
partitioning, 172
PASSWORD( ), 231
passwords
      database-specific passwords, 204
      hashing, security advantages of, 231
      security concerns, 210
performance, monitoring, 11-15
performance testing versus stress testing, 46
Perl scripts, downloading, xii
phantom rows, 25
phpMyAdmin, 257-264
      export and download of data, using for, 262
      simple SQL commands, 260
      user maintenance using, 259
      web site, 257
prefix compression, 72
primary keys versus unique indexes, 67
privileges, 205-207
      average employee accounts, 217
      database administrator accounts, 216
      global privileges, 206
      logging applications, 217
      operations and monitoring personnel, 218
      privilege checks, 207
      system administrator account, 215
process privilege, 206
processes, displaying, 12
PURGE MASTER LOGS TO ... command, 151
purge_binary_logs script, 156
pyramid configuration, replication, 147

Q[ Top ]
queries
      analysis, 81
      execution, 91
      EXPLAIN output (see EXPLAIN command)
      hashing of, 80
      index-only queries, 86
      optimization, 81
      parsing, 81
      preventing caching, 80
      processing, 79-92
      using the wrong index, 120-122
      whitespace in, 80
query barrels, 51
query cache, 80-81
query_cache_type, 80
query optimization versus server tuning, 103
query optimizer, 81, 92-95
      data, insufficient diversity in, 92
      full-text versus LIKE, 95
      impossible queries, 94
      index-based ordering, 93
query performance, 79-102
      influencing with hints, 96-98
            index usage, 97
            join order, 96
            query cache, 97
            result sizes, 97
      slow queries, identifying, 95
      tricks for improving, 98-102
            two queries instead of one, 98-100
            unions versus ORs, 100-102

R[ Top ]
RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks), 109-113
      hardware versus software RAID, 112
      hot-swappable disks, 107
      IDE versus SCSI disks, 112
      mirroring, 110
      multiple arrays, using, 111
      on slaves, 113
      parity blocks, 110
      RAID 0, 109
      RAID 1, 110
      RAID 10 (RAID 1+0), 110
      RAID 5, 110
      RAID tables (MyISAM storage engine), 39
      striping, 109
      summary of features, 110
      write caching, 112
raw backups, 190
read committed isolation level, 24
read lock, 18
read uncommitted isolation level, 24
read_heartbeat script, 159
read/write locks, 18
reconfiguration, 10
recovery
      dumps, restoring from, 189
      mysqldump, 194
      mysqlhotcopy, 196
      mysqlsnapshot, 197
      offline backups, 198
references privilege, 206
regular expressions and indexes, 75
Reiser, Hans, 116
ReiserFS filesystem, 116
reload privilege, 206
REPAIR TABLE command, 73
repeatable read isolation level, 25
replication, 1, 129-168
      administration and maintenance, 148-160
            log rotation, 151
            master status, 149
            masters, changing, 151-153
            monitoring, 149
            replication heartbeat, 150
            slave status, 150
      architectures, 144-148
      backups and, 193
      common problems, 160-164
            binary and transaction logs out of sync, 163
            bulk-loading data, 162
            hostname changes, caused by, 164
            log corruption, 161
            missing temporary tables, 163
            nonreplicated dependencies, 162
            nonunique server IDs, 161
            slave data changes, 160
      configuring, 134-139
            account creation, 135
            configuration file entries, 136
            custom architectures, 148
            dual master architecture, 146
            on existing servers, 137-139
            master and slave servers, 144-148
            master, restarting, 136
            new servers, 135-137
            pyramid architecture, 147
            replication ring (multi-master), 146
            slave, restarting, 137
            slave with two masters architecture, 145
      files and settings, 142-144
            filtering, 143
            log files, 142
            log index files, 142
            status files, 143
      implementation, differences in MySQL versions, 129
      LOAD TABLE FROM MASTER command, 139
      master and slave servers, 130
            query processing, 140-142
      over an intermittent connection, 130
      performance, testing, 134
      problems not solved by, 132-134
            online ordering, 133
            real time data transmission, 133
      problems solved by, 130-132
            backup and recovery using, 131
            data distribution, 130
            high availability and failover, 131
            load-balancing using, 130
      proposed enhancements, 164-168
            fail-safe replication, 165
            safe multi-master replication, 165-168
            slaves, adding, 164
      query processing, 140-142
            MySQL 3.23, 140
            MySQL 4.0, 141
      rules, 144
      slaves, copying master data to, 138
            snapshots versus backups, 139
      tools, 153-160
            check_repl script, 154
            fix_repl script, 155
            mysqlbinlog utility, 153
            mysqldiff script, 157
            purge_binary_logs script, 156
            read_heartbeat script, 159
            write_heartbeat script, 159
requests, 171
RESET MASTER command, 152
REVOKE command, 215
role based addressing, 132
ROLLBACK statement, 22
round-robin DNS, 130
row locks, 20
R-tree indexes, 70-72

S[ Top ]
scripts, downloading, xii
SCSI versus IDE disks, 112
secondary indexes, 65
security, 203-236
      accounts, 203
      columns_priv table, 214
      data encryption, 231-234
      database-specific passwords, 204
      db table, 212
      encryption
            application-level encryption, 233-234
            encrypted filesystems, 232
            hashing passwords, 231
      general guidelines, 222
      GRANT command, 215-219
      grant tables, 204, 207
            fields used for matching records in, 208
      host table, 211
      LOAD DATA INFILE... command, 206
      logins, 203
      MySQL in chroot environments, 235
      networks, 223-231
            automatic host blocking, 230
            connection encryption and tunneling, 226-229
            firewalls, 225
            localhost and MySQL, 224
            localhost-only connections, 223
            MySQL in DMZs, 225
            SSL, 227-229
            TCP wrappers, 230
            VPNs, 226
      operating systems, 222
      passwords, 210
      privileges, 205-207
            average employee accounts, 217
            database administrator accounts, 216
            logging, write-only access, 217
            operations and monitoring personnel, 218
            privilege checks, 207
            revocation, limitations, 219
            system administrator account, 215
      problems and limitations, 219-221
            host and database matching, 220
            privileges and dropped databases, 220
            revocation of specific privileges, 219
      REVOKE command, 215
      SHOW PROCESSLIST command, 206
      source code modification, 235
      tables_priv table, 213
      user table, 208-211
            host matching, 209
seek time, 104
select privilege, 206
serializable isolation level, 26
server ID, 136
server IDs, slaves, 144
server variables
      displaying, 11
      SESSION and GLOBAL syntax, 10
servers
      hardware, buying, 107
      health checks, 175-177
      masters and slaves (see replication)
      performance limiting factors, 103-109
            CPU cache, 107
            disks, 104
            duplex mismatch, 106
            I/O channels, 107
            master and slaves replication setup, 106
            memory, 105
            memory speed, 107
            networks, 106-109
      redundant power supplies, 107
      replication (see replication)
      tuning, 119-128
            bottlenecks identifying, 119
            caching, 123
            CPU bottlenecks, solving, 124
            I/O bottlenecks, solving, 119
            kernel bottlenecks, solving, 127
            load-balancing, 123
            memory needs, calculating, 125
            queries using the wrong index, 120-122
            temporary tables, 122
            versus query optimization, 103
server-wide privileges, 207
SESSION syntax, 10
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL command, 28
SHA1( ), 231
shared locks, 18
SHOW commands, 11-15
      SHOW CREATE TABLE, 77
      SHOW INDEXES FROM, 77
      SHOW INNODB STATUS, 14, 245-247
      SHOW MASTER LOGS, 151
      SHOW MASTER STATUS, 149
      SHOW PROCESSLIST, 12-14
            commands in output, 13
            security concerns, 206
      SHOW SLAVE STATUS, 150
      SHOW STATUS, 14, 237-245
            command counters, 239
            data access patterns, 240
            file descriptors, 242
            handler counters, 240
            MyISAM key buffer statistics counters, 241
            query cache statistics counters, 242
            SELECT queries, tracking, 243
            sorts, 244
            status counters, 237
            table locking, 244
            temporary files and tables counters, 239
            thread and connection statistics counters, 238
      SHOW TABLE STATUS, 35-37
      SHOW VARIABLES, 11
shutdown privilege, 206
slave with two masters replication configuration, 145
slaves
      connection to wrong master, 164
      manual data changes to, 160
slow query log, 95
smack file, 54
soft updates, 114
software RAID, 112
spatial indexes, 70
SQL_BIG_RESULT hint, 97
SQL_BUFFER_RESULT hint, 97
SQL_CACHE hint, 81, 98
SQL_NO_CACHE hint, 80
SSH tunneling, 229
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), 227-229
status files, 143, 175
stock quotes, use of storage engines for, 32
storage engines, 16, 35-44
      Berkeley DB (BDB) storage engine, 44
      features, 35
      Heap (in-memory) tables, 44
      InnoDB storage engine, 42-44
            locking and concurrency, 43
            referential integrity, 43
            storage, 43
      mixing in transactions, 28
      MyISAM storage engine, 37-42
            compressed tables, 39
            Merge tables, 40-42
            RAID tables, 39
            storage, 37
      NDB, 183
      selecting, 29-34
            backups, considerations, 30
            special features, based on, 30
            transactions and concurrency, considerations, 29
      table conversions, 33
      table types, determining, 35-37
      transaction safe MySQL engines, 27
      use, examples, 30
            bulletin boards, 32
            catalogs, 31
            CD-ROM applications, 33
            logging, 31
            order processing, 31
            stock quotes, 32
            threaded discussion forums, 32
stress testing versus performance testing, 46
striping, 109
super privilege, 206
super-smack (see MySQL super-smack)
support-files directory, 7-10
swap, 117
systat, 124
system administrator accounts, database privileges for, 215
system versions, 21

T[ Top ]
table types (see storage engines)
tables
      missing temporary tables, problems caused by, 163
      reindexing, 77
      table conversions, 33
            ALTER TABLE statement, 33
            CREATE and SELECT, 34
            drop and reimport, 34
      (see also storage engines)
tablespaces, 43
tables_priv table, 207, 213
TCP wrappers, 230
testing, backups and, 189
threaded discussion forums, use of storage engines for, 32
threading, 118
Time To Live (TTL), 131
tmp_table_size variable, 122
tools, downloading, xiv
top, 119
transaction logs, 27
transactions, 22
      ACID transactions, 22-29
      AUTOCOMMIT mode, 27
      implicit commits, 27
      isolation levels, setting, 28
      simulating on non-transaction-safe tables, 29
      storage engines, mixing in, 28
tunefs command (Linux), 116
Tuuri, Heikki, 42

U[ Top ]
UFS and UFS2 filesystems, 116
unique indexes, 65
      versus primary keys, 67
Unix configuration file locations, 4
UNLOCK TABLES command, 29
user table, 207, 208-211
      host matching, 209

V[ Top ]
Veritas, 186
      filesystem snapshot tool, 199
versioning, 20
virtual private networks (VPNs), 226
vmstat, 119
VPNs (virtual private networks), 226

W[ Top ]
whitespace in queries, 80
wildcard matches and indexes, 75
Windows
      benchmarking tools and, 49
      binaries versus source installations, 2
      configuration file locations, 4
      journaling and non-journaling filesystems, 114
      MySQL and, xii
Windows Task Manager, 119
write caching, 112
write locks, 18
write_heartbeat script, 159

X[ Top ]
XFS filesystem, 116